VUB CASE: Men of influence, women of change: the evolution of women’s suffrage in Belgium (1830 - 1948) and its (male) advocates

The theme of this year’s EUTOPIA Connected Learning Community in Legal History, Collective and Individual Rights, offers an excellent opportunity to explore the evolution of women’s suffrage in Belgium. This topic is not only of historical significance but also a compelling example of how collaboration between individuals and collective movements can drive social and legal change. This blogpost, titled "Men of influence, women of change: The evolution of women’s suffrage in Belgium (1830–1948) and its (male) advocates," explores the roles played by (male) allies and political forces in advancing women’s right to vote.

The blogpost begins by examining the legal and societal dynamics prior to 1919 (around the time when women conquered the right to vote in the UK, the US and Germany), providing a foundation for understanding the transformative developments that followed. A few milestones leading up to 1948 are explored, while also focusing on the role of women’s suffrage movements and the contributions of influential male figures such as Louis Frank  and Nobel Peace Prize Winner Henri La Fontaine (. Furthermore, the analysis delves into the influence of political parties, highlighting how collective and institutional forces shaped the evolution of women’s rights in Belgium. This evolution reached its climax in 1948, when adult Belgian women from 21 on gained full suffrage, representing the outcome of years of persistent advocacy and collective action.

This concise exploration highlights and explains how the interplay between individual advocacy, collective movements, and political structures drove transformative change in Belgium, ultimately achieving universal female suffrage.

1.      General history – male suffrage

Vooruit, 12/04/1919 - Universal suffrage (for men) (1) ----------

When Belgium gained its independence in 1830, its political system was highly exclusive. Census voting was in place, restricted to wealthy male property owners whose fiscal contribution passed a threshold specified in the constitution and electoral laws. The constituent assembly of 1830-1831 thus tied political participation to economic power. This meant that only a small percentage of the population, approximately 1%, had the right to vote. (2)

In the late 19th century, demands for greater inclusivity began to grow. Already in the 1840s, the rapid adaptation of Belgium to the industrial revolution had created a working class, whose members protested throughout the 1860s, e.g. with the First Socialist International. A conservative compromise imposed by Catholics and Liberals, under pressure of the street, introduced plural voting in 1893. (3) Under this system, all men above 25 were granted the right to vote, but wealthier citizens and degree holders could cast multiple votes, reinforcing the political dominance of the elite while also giving into the demands of the working class. (4)  Although plural voting was a step forward, it was far from true democracy.

The fight for universal (male) suffrage continued, with significant pressure coming from socialist and liberal movements, believing that this was the only way that they could break the catholic absolute majority, which lasted from 1884 to 1914. (5) Almost at the same time as the discussion about universal (male) suffrage started, the question of women’s rights was first raised. There was an uprising of feminists, such as Emilie Claeys, who advocated for equality and, therefore also, women’s suffrage.  In 1919, Belgium finally abolished plural voting, establishing universal suffrage (for men) aged 21 and older. This marked a turning point in the nation’s political history, as voting rights were no longer tied to wealth or social status, more can be found in August Vanschoubroek’s blogpost. Once universal male suffrage was achieved, all the attention turned to the next frontier: women’s voting rights. (6)

2.      Women’s rights prior to 1919

Women's suffrage movements had been active since the late 19th century, as women across the world united to fight for their rights. During this time, women as a whole were regarded as being similar to children: both legally and socially subordinate and an assumption so ingrained that lacking many rights, voting included, was almost automatic. (7)

a.      Political parties

During this period, three major political parties dominated the Belgian political landscape: the Catholics, the Socialists, and the Liberals. Initially, the Socialists were the most ardent supporters of women's suffrage. Around 1894, female suffrage became a key policy objective for them. However, they ultimately sidelined this cause in favor of securing universal male suffrage. The Catholics[, with their famous spokesperson Charles Woeste  were initially opposed the idea of women voting. However, they began to reconsider this position when the Socialists started pushing for universal male suffrage. The Catholics saw the potential advantage of granting women the vote, believing that women -who rarely attended secondary school- would likely vote in alignment with their husbands and support Catholic values.

Charles Woeste (1837–1922) was a prominent Belgian politician and lawyer who played a pivotal role in shaping the political and religious landscape of Belgium during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Charles Woeste had his own motives. His goal was not to empower women but to advance the interests of Catholics. He believed that by granting women voting rights, he and the Catholic Party could regain political dominance.  (8)

Charles Woeste

 

 

b.      Women’s (suffrage) movements

There were numerous women’s (suffrage) movements, some of which were influenced by political parties. A few notable examples include the socialist-aligned Hollandsche-Vlaamsche Vrouwenbond, the Brussels-based Christian women's movement La Ligue des Femmes Chrétiennes, and the most prominent autonomous group, La Ligue du Droit des Femmes Belges, founded by Marie Popelin, Henri La Fontaine and Louis Frank. (9) They tried to build a more just society by advocating for better education, women's suffrage, political participation, and the elimination of all forms of exclusion.

c.      Male allies

Henri La Fontaine

The (Palais Mondial-) Mundaneum in Brussels. The museum was later relocated to Mons. 

Henri La Fontaine, a Brussels-based jurist and Nobel Peace Prize laureate in 1913, was a dedicated pacifist and professor of international law at the Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), the French-speaking sister university of the VUB. As a Senator for the socialist Belgian Labour Party (BWP), he advocated for social justice and arbitration at the international level. (10)

Rooted in his deep belief in equality, he fought for women's rights, convinced that access to information and legal clarity were essential to their emancipation. (11)

                                                                           

Portrait of Louis Frank                      Caricature of Frank in women clothing because he supported women rights

 

Louis Frank, a lawyer, was one of the most famous Belgian supporters of women suffrage. He defended women seeking admission to the bar on two notable occasions. In Belgium, he advocated for Marie Popelin , the first female Doctor of Law in the country, though her case was ultimately unsuccessful. In France, he supported Jeanne Chauvin, whose case succeeded, marking a significant victory for women's rights in the legal profession.

He was also the author of several influential books and pieces about women rights. Frank’s most influential work, “Essai sur la condition politique de la femme” (Essay on the Political situation of Women), a thorough analysis, was published in 1892 . In this 600-page work, he posited and argued that civil equality between men and women logically led to political equality. Using legal, historical, and sociological facts, he methodically disproved traditional arguments against women's voting rights, such as the belief that they are less intelligent, emotionally unstable, or incapable of handling politics. Frank also carried out a thorough comparative study of women's rights in other nations, demonstrating that female political engagement was both feasible and successful in those other nations. (13)

It was thanks to the book that, after the two failed attempts in 1888 and 1889 to admit Marie Popelin to the bar, Frank, La Fontaine, and Popelin founded La Ligue Belge du Droit des Femmes in 1892.  This initiative, largely due to the book’s influence on public opinion, was generally well received by the public. (14)

3.      The turning point: WWI

L’illustration – 22/04/1916 (15)

Although women had been advocating for suffrage for decades prior to World War I, war is often seen as a pivotal moment that accelerated the enactment of voting rights laws. (16) With large numbers of men conscripted into military service, women stepped into roles traditionally held by men, taking on jobs in factories, transportation, agriculture, and even military support services. (17) This significant shift demonstrated women's capacity to contribute meaningfully to society beyond the domestic sphere, challenging the long-standing stereotypes that were alive during that time.

Opponents of women's suffrage had previously argued that women were unsuited for political participation, citing perceptions of passivity (18) and a supposed lack of understanding of public affairs. However, their indispensable role during the war directly contradicted these claims, providing suffragists and Catholics with a powerful argument for inclusion in the political process.  The left favored a slower approach. (19)

4.      1919-1921: The granting of women's first voting rights

What I neglected to mention in my introduction is that the day universal suffrage for men was achieved also marked a significant milestone for women. In 1919, (some) women gained the right to vote for the first time, but there were some important limitations. Initially, voting rights were granted only to mothers and widows of military personnel and civilians killed during the war, but this applied only to the municipal elections. (20) As a result, just 10130 women were eligible to vote in these elections, compared to more than 2.3 million men. (21) Important to note is that widows who had remarried lost their right to vote. Only those who remained unmarried could cast their ballots.

The limited voting rights granted to women can be traced back to what is known in history as the “Compromis Belge” or the "Belgian Compromise." In this political agreement, Liberals and Socialists, advocating for universal male suffrage, faced opposition from Catholics. In exchange for agreeing to universal male suffrage, the Catholic party pushed for the inclusion of female suffrage. Ultimately, the compromise led to women receiving only restricted voting rights. The Constitution was amended to make the extension of suffrage to all women for parliamentary elections possible by Law (ergo: with a simple majority in Parliament).

In 1920, an amendment of the electoral rules of local councils and Provinces expanded voting rights and eligibility to run for office in municipal elections to all women, with the exception of “women or girls who openly and habitually engage in sexual indecency” more commonly labelled (at that time) as prostitutes. (22) Additionally, women gained the right to run for municipal, provincial and national office, often referred to as "passive suffrage."

           Article 3 from the law of April 15, 1920, that excludes prostitutes from voting

5.      The interbellum (1922-1948)

Marie Spaak Janson, the first female senator

Marie Spaak Janson in the Belgian Senate in Brussels

 

Despite the introduction of passive and limited active voting rights, the interbellum was far from a time of progress for women. While women gained the right to be elected in the national elections, this right was essentially meaningless, as few were actually elected. In the Chamber of Representatives, only three women were directly elected during the interbellum period, and in the Senate, no woman was elected directly. Instead, female representation in the Senate relied on the practice of cooptation. (23) A "co-opted senator" is one appointed by the Senate itself, with the number of co-opted senators allocated to each party based on its share of directly elected senators.

In the municipal elections of 1921, only 215 women were elected, representing just over 1% of the total available seats. (24)  During the remaining part of the interbellum all political parties had their own reasons for supporting women's voting rights, however, they continued to delay real action on the matter. (25)

a.      Marie Spaak-Janson

Het Laatste Nieuws – 17/12/1921 (26)

After the 1921 parliamentary elections, Marie Spaak (Janson) was the first woman to be elected on the national level, despite not having the right to vote in national elections herself. She became the first female senator, not through direct election but as a co-opted member of the socialist Belgian Workers’ Party (BWP). She was the daughter of Paul Janson, a prominent senator and representative, and the sister of Paul-Émile Janson, who served as a minister in various governments, briefly held the position of Prime Minister during the interbellum and died in Buchenwald in 1944. Her husband was Paul Spaak, a lawyer and writer. Additionally, she was the mother of Paul-Henri Spaak, who would go on to become Prime Minister of Belgium, founding father of the European Economic Community and Secretary-General of NATO. (27)

It barely caused a stir in the press, with her solely being referred to as ‘Madam Paul Spaak’ by the Liberal newspaper Het Laatste Nieuws. It took eight years for another woman, the socialist Lucie Dejardin, to be elected to Parliament in 1929, and another seven before a second woman, the Catholic Maria Baers, joined the Senate in 1936.  (28)

Spaak was a clear supporter of women’s rights. She is most famous for her political role in the right for women to be admitted to the bar.

Unfortunately, she was also a committed Socialist, which led her to oppose women's suffrage on multiple occasions. The first instance occurred in 1925 when she voted against an amendment granting women's suffrage at the provincial level. A second time, in 1929, she opposed an amendment that would have theoretically secured female suffrage. In both cases, she most likely prioritized her party's agenda over the advancement of women's rights. (29)

6.      The struggle is over: universal suffrage in 1948

 Vooruit – 28/03/1948 – “ Het vrouwenstemrecht”  (30)

Following World War II, the number of female representatives tripled in both legislative chambers—the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. The Catholic Party played a decisive role in securing women's suffrage in 1948. After the first post-war elections, the Catholic faction of the newly formed Socialist-Catholic coalition government pushed for the implementation of women's voting rights. (32)

In 1948, universal suffrage was introduced, granting women the right to vote and run for office in both municipal and national elections. (33) This milestone marked a significant step forward in women's political participation, with the first opportunity to exercise these rights occurring during the national elections on June 26, 1949.

7.      Conclusion

In conclusion, the journey of women's suffrage in Belgium, from its early stages to the eventual achievement of universal suffrage in 1948, reflects not only the relentless efforts of women and their male allies but also the strategic maneuvering of political parties seeking to consolidate power. Female suffrage was often treated less as a genuine objective and more as a bargaining chip or merely a tool to advance broader political agendas.

While women’s movements were essential in challenging the status quo, key moments of support and advocacy from influential male allies, such as Louis Frank and Henri La Fontaine, played an essential role in advancing the cause.  With political power concentrated in the hands of men, the support of these male allies proved essential in driving the changes advocated by the women's suffrage movement. The story of women’s suffrage in Belgium is the example of progress driven by the (calculated) advocacy of men of choice and the perseverance of women of change.

Explore this map to see when women gained the right to vote across Europe. The members of the Eutopia alliance have a green pin.

 By Améline Verhelst

(1)      Het algemeen enkelvoudig stemrecht. (1919, April 12). Vooruit. Belgicapress.

(2)      Devos, C. (2006). De kleermakers en de keizer: Inleiding tot politiek en politieke wetenschappen. Academia Press. 542; Watteyne, S. (2023). Lever l’impôt en Belgique : Une histoire de combats politiques (1830–1962). Bruxelles, Belgique : Centre de recherche et d’information socio-politiques (CRISP).

(3)      Barthélemy, J. (1912). L'organisation du suffrage et l'expérience belge : suffrage censitaire, capacitaire, universel, suffrage plural, vote obligatoire, sincérité des opérations, électorales, scrutin de liste, scrutin uninominal, représentation des intérêts ... Paris: Giard et Brière.; Dhondt, F. (2021). Justice and Equality for All? Proportional Representation in Belgium and France (1883-1921). Seqüência Estudos Jurídicos E Políticos, 41(86), 28–62. https://doi.org/10.5007/2177-7055.2020v41n86p28

(4)      Devos, C. (2006). De kleermakers en de keizer: Inleiding tot politiek en politieke wetenschappen. Academia Press. 542;

(5)      Matthijs, H., Jans, M. T. & de Koker, H. (2005). Bestuurswetenschappen: De overheid: Instellingen en beleid. Intersentia. 126. 

(6)      Craeghs, J., & Dewachter, W. (1998). Vrouwen verkozen: Een eerste onderzoek naar de betekenis van de evenredige vertegenwoordiging, de hoofdvakstem en de plaatsvervanging. Afdeling Politicologie, KU Leuven. 1-3. 

(7)      Deneckere, G., De Wever, B., De Paepe, T. & Vanthemsche, G. (2020). Een geschiedenis van België. Terra - Lannoo, Uitgeverij. 

(8)      Carlier, J. & Gubin, É. (2008). "Choisir l’histoire des femmes". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire/Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis, 86(2), 494–497. ;

(9)      Michielsens, M. (2005). 175 jaar vrouwen: Gelijkheid en ongelijkheid in België 1830–2005. Raad van de Gelijke Kansen voor Mannen en Vrouwen. 51-53; Recht in beweging – 31ste VRG-Alumnidag 2024. (n.d). Gompel & Svacina. 187-189. 

(10)    Creve, P. (2000). Geld stinkt niet. De socialisten en de toegang tot de Senaat. Brood & Rozen, 5(3). 24. 

(11)    Antoniol, A. (2017). Henri La Fontaine : Une personnalité remarquable aux multiples engagements. ULB-DBIS. 1-6. 

(12)    Gendergeschiedenis. (n.d.). Jongens, meisjes, en de gendergeschiedenis: Een vrouwelijke advocaat? Liever niet! Gendergeschiedenis. 1-4. 

(13)    De Bueger-Van Lierde, F. (1973). Louis Frank, pionnier du mouvement féministe belge. Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis, 3(4). 377-392. 

(14)    Carlier, J. (2012). Mannen, mannelijkheid en vrouwenrechten in de Belgische belle époque: Gender en klasse in het feminisme van de jurist en publicist Louis Frank (1864–1917). Tijdschrift voor Genderstudies, 15(1). 7-9; De Bueger-Van Lierde, F. (1973). Louis Frank, pionnier du mouvement féministe belge. Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis, 3(4). 377-392.

(15)    Les femmes dans les usines de guerre. (1916, April 22). L’Illustration. 

(16)    Rousseau, D. L. (2021). War and rights: The impact of war on political and civil rights. University of Michigan Press. 231. 

(17)    De Waele, M. (1998). De eeuw van de vrouwen? Werk en leven van vrouwen in de twintigste eeuw. Tijdschrift voor Industriële Cultuur, 16(63), 9 ; De Weerdt, D. (2016). De historiografie van feminisme en vrouwenbeweging. Brood & Rozen, 1(3). 38. 

(18)    Shover, M. J. (1975). Roles and Images of Women in World War I Propaganda. Politics & Society, 5(4), 469-486. https://doi.org/10.1177/003232927500500404

(19)    Celis, K. & Meier, P. (2006). De macht van het geslacht: Gender, politiek en beleid in België. Acco. 19. 

(20)    Wet 9 mei 1919 op de het opstellen van kieslijsten voor de volgende vernieuwing van de wetgevende kamers, BS 12-13 mei 1919.

(21)    Matheve, N. (2014). Une république des camarades? Selectie van ministers in het tussenoorlogse België. Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire/Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis, 92(2). 494. 

(22)    Wet 15 april 1920 op het opmaken van de lijsten der gemeentekiezers en wijzigende sommige bepalingen van de wet van 12 september 1895, BS 18 april 1920.

(23)    Matheve, N. (2014). Une république des camarades? Selectie van ministers in het tussenoorlogse België. Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire/Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis, 92(2). 494. 

(24)    Gerard, E. (2017). De schaduw van het interbellum: België van euforie tot crisis 1918–1939. Terra - Lannoo, Uitgeverij. 

(25)    Poma, K. (2014). De verlichting belicht. Garant. 142. 

(26)    Bij en om het parlement (1921, December 17) Het Laatste Nieuws. Belgicapress.  

(27)    Toebosch, E. (2006). Het parlement anders bekeken. Academia Press in samenwerking met Liberaal Archief. 166. 

(28)    Rokeghem, S. van, Aubenas, J., & Vercheval-Vervoort, J. (2006). Des femmes dans l'histoire en Belgique, depuis 1830. Luc Pire.; Depaepe, M. (2004). Op eigen vleugels: Liber amicorum prof. dr. An Hermans. Garant. 118. 

(29)    Craeghs, J., & Dewachter, W. (1998). Vrouwen verkozen: Een eerste onderzoek naar de betekenis van de evenredige vertegenwoordiging, de hoofdvakstem en de plaatsvervanging. Afdeling Politicologie, KU Leuven. 12. ; Senate of Belgium. (n.d.). Portrait of a lady. Belgian Senate. 

(30)    Vooruit. (1948, March 28). Vooruit. Samenwerkende maatschappij Volksdrukkerij & Het Licht. Belgicapress.

(31)    Le projet de suffrage des femmes est voté. (1948, March 25). La Libre Belgique. Belgicapress.

(32)    Craeghs, J., & Dewachter, W. (1998). Vrouwen verkozen: Een eerste onderzoek naar de betekenis van de evenredige vertegenwoordiging, de hoofdvakstem en de plaatsvervanging. Afdeling Politicologie, KU Leuven. 12. 

(33)    Wet 27 maart 1948 die het kiesrecht toekent aan vrouwen voor de wetgevende kamers, BS 22 april 1948.