LJUBLJANA CASE: The Sokol Association in Ljubljana, the capital of Carniola: Physical Education as a Means of Political Engagement in the 19th century?

Picture 1: Comparison between the Turnvereins and Sokols establishment 

The gymnastics association Južni Sokol (Southern Falcon), founded in Ljubljana in 1863, marks the beginning of the so-called Sokol movement on the (present-day) Slovenian territory. Despite its somewhat misleading name, the association served other purposes besides gymnastics, mainly political ones. Its development thus serves as an excellent case study of how the legal framework for associations at that time was applied in practice.

In the 19th century, national-cultural associations such as Sokol soon became one of the key tools of national awakening. Its history is closely connected to another such association, the Narodna čitavnica v Ljubljani (reading club of Ljubljana), founded in 1862. The cultural field in which the reading club was active expanded to such an extent that it started setting up several different associations, Sokol being one of them. In addition to the fact that a significant number of the initiators for the establishment of the latter were permanent members of the reading club, the two associations also organised many joint events. Some researchers suggest that with the declining importance of reading associations, Sokol took over its role.

On the one hand, I will analyse the relationship between the Slovenian Južni Sokol association and the German Laibacher Turnverein, while on the other hand, I will examine the government’s stance in relation to both associations. I will argue that despite the right of association and establishment, Sokol faced more obstacles than Turnverein, of which the purpose, according to its rules, was essentially the same as Sokol's.

The Sokol movement The Sokol movement on the Slovenian territory was influenced by the Czech movement, especially by the Prague Sokol, founded in 1862 by Miroslav Tyrš. It is important to emphasise that gymnastics was not something new in Ljubljana. On the contrary! The very same year they also intended to establish a gymnastic association, independently of the events in Prague. The establishment of Južni Sokol On the 27th of July 1862, a call for the establishment of Južni Sokol was sent out. The establishment and drafting of the association's rules also raised the issue of the professional language. Furthermore, the preparatory committee was composed entirely of Slovenians, while the association was supposed to include Slovenians and Germans. Consequently, the gymnasts quickly split up, eventually forming two separate associations. Although both had the same purpose, the government approved the rules of the Turnverein almost immediately, whereas Sokol had to wait almost a year.

Submission of rules and the rejection of their application 

Upon reviewing the request in February 1863, the head of the police department of Ljubljana concluded that it was signed by five young men who were supposedly members of an "ultra-national party". For them, this was an indication that the association had a political dimension under the guise of practicing gymnastics. The application was thus rejected by the government and Sokol soon submitted, revised rules, albeit unsuccessfully. After modifying them three times, they were finally approved by the government on 25th of September 1863 – oddly enough on the same day as those of the Laibacher Turnverein.  

The main concern was not only the nationality of the members, but also the provision regarding the membership of students. As for the very purpose of the association, they objected that anyone could join, regardless of nationality, thus further emphasizing that they would not serve as a political association in disguise.  

Picture 2: Rules, submitted on the 21st of December 1862

Picture 3: Rules approved on the 25th of September 1863 

Interestingly, the Turnverein’s rules are almost the same as the ones Sokol had to correct. Its rules were actually based on the Vienna Turnverein which also had no problems with the said provision. The governments’ goal with this restriction was probably to prevent them from having direct contact with the youth.

Picture 4: Rules of the Laibacher Turnvereins approved on 25. 9. 1863 

The Sokol excess In the beginning, the two associations were on good terms, but tensions began to rise with the Prusso-Austrian War in 1866 when the wounded soldiers, seeking medical treatment, were coming to Ljubljana. Despite their willingness to assist the Turnverein, they were repeatedly turned away from doing so. All this led to an incident which would later cost them the entire association. Towards the end of July, a fight between the two rival associations broke out. The mayor of Ljubljana, E. H. Costa, a prominent member of Sokol, was also involved. Being blamed for the said event, Južni Sokol had to close its doors after almost four years. Having dismissed the association on the 1st of August 1867, it was clear that the government took advantage of the situation. Sadly, the dissolution was not the only consequence Slovenians had to face. The Germans primarily achieved two things. By taking away the town police, suspending the mayor of Ljubljana and the trial, they paralysed any active politics of the Slovenian party. On the other hand, they made it clear who the government was in favour of. Much of the political capital that Costa was now lost. Sokol has died, may Sokol live Not long after the infamous Sokol excess, at the start of 1868, the association Ljubljanski Sokol began its activities. The establishment itself took around a month which is considerably less than in 1863. But was this actually surprising? The reason could probably be attributed to the so-called liberal Associations' Act, which was passed on the 15th of November 1867. Although the name is in its own way deceiving, the act implemented the right of association and brought to life the constitutional right of assembly. In this regard, paragraphs 6 and 8 are of crucial importance.

Picture 5: Associations’ act of 1867 (Gesetz über das Vereinsrecht), 15. november 1867 (freedom of assembly) 

The comparison between the newly written rules with the original ones is also interesting since the age limit is no longer a requirement. Its purpose however remains the same since it was a continuation of Južni Sokol, both in terms of organisation, membership and the way in which it operated.

Picture 6: Rules approved on the 25th of September 1863 

Picture 7: Rules of Ljubljanski Sokol – January 1868 

The first major appearance of the newly formed association was in 1868 at the tabor in Žalec, and the following year at the one in Vižmarje. In May of 1869, there was yet another infamous encounter between the two rival associations. When the Turnverein went on an excursion to the countryside they were forced out of Janče by the agitated farmers. Later in the evening, this escalated into a smaller conflict. Consequently, the members of Turnverein allegedly did not dare to set foot into the countryside in the near future, and Sokol couldn’t organize any trips for the whole summer, since the government turned down each of their requests, claiming they were threatening to disrupt the public order.

Picture 8: Examples of government bans on organizing excursions 

In their annual reports, Sokol describes the 1870s, characterized by the pressure from Germans, as a dark period for the association. Government bans and the suppression of the tabori movement hit the association's branches particularly hard, causing them to gradually collapse, one after the other. Attempts to establish new Sokol associations were ultimately unsuccessful – the Sokol in Ljutomer, which my colleague Domen will give you an insight into, is just one example of many. With the arrival of the government of Taaffe in the 1880s, the circumstances improved vastly. New Sokol associations were successfully established – for the first time outside of Carniola.

Conclusion The Sokol Association was not just a gymnastics association. It played an important role in the co-shaping of politics in the second half of the 19th century, which is particularly evident in the case of the infamous Sokol excesses. From the very beginning, its activities were affected by obstacles from the authorities, who favoured the German associations. Despite the initial difficulties in establishing the association and its later dissolution, it managed to maintain its influence and popularity. At the turn of the century, the cultural struggle further exposed the political nature of the Sokol movement – political polarisation raised the question of whether the essence of the movement was "political apprenticeship" or "a training ground for young people for real life later on". This polarisation triggered two major turning points in the movement’s history: the founding of the Catholic-oriented gymnastics association Orel and the attempt to distance the movement from political issues at the turn of the 20th century.

By Teja Benčič

This contribution is part of the Ljubljana students' collective project The rights of association and assembly between assertion and resistance among Slovenes with an outlook to Spain in the long 19th century: villagers, workers, academics, lawyers, gymnasts, citizens at large (curated by Prof. dr. Katja Škrubej).

Bibliography:

Primary sources

Gedenkschrift aus Anlass der Feier des fünfundzwanzigjährigen Bestande des Laibacher deutschen Turnvereines (1888). https://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-WWQXAVUV

Grundgesetz des Laibacher Turnvereins (1863). https://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-LPWIF0JJ Lah, Evgen, Valenta, Vojteh (1888). Petindvajsetletnica Sokola. https://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-DVISS3UF SI AS 641 Telovadno društvo Sokol v Ljubljani, 1862-1981

Literature

Javornik, B. (2014). »Naša stvar ni za stranke, nego je za ves narod…«. Zgodovina za vse, (2), 93 – 95. https://www.sistory.si/publication/36189 Matić, D. (1999). Sokolski eksces ali pretep v Šantlovi veži. Zgodovina za vse, (1), 13–24. http://hdl.handle.net/11686/2491 Pavlin, T. (2014). 150-letnica ustanovitve Južnega Sokola. Šport, 62(1/2), 47–48. https://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:doc-JV1OBDYM

Pavlin, T. (2013). »Dajati pobudo, priložnost in navad pravilnim telesnim vajam" (ob 150-letnici ustanovitve prvega slovenskega telovadnega društva Južni Sokol). Šport (Ljubljana), letnik 61, številka 3/4, 44-51. https://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-GHMLBL9P

Škrubej, K. (2023). The Foundation of a Free State is Free (Music) Association? Continuity and Change after 1849/67 in Vienna and Ljubljana: Contribution to the History of Orchestra en tant que Association. Glasbena društva v dolgem 19. stoletju: med ljubiteljsko in profesionalno kulturo, 215-252. https://dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-55R5G45X